For most of Earth's history, humans weren't here. For billions of years, life evolved without cities, writing, computers or anything resembling human civilisation. Yet intelligence itself is much older than humanity. Crows can solve problems. Octopuses can manipulate objects and escape enclosures. Dolphins cooperate and communicate. Elephants appear to recognise individuals and respond to death. Chimpanzees use tools. Even some insects display surprisingly sophisticated forms of learning and navigation. If intelligence has evolved repeatedly in living animals, an obvious question follows: How intelligent were the animals that are now extinct? We have fossils of enormous numbers of creatures that disappeared millions of years ago. We can reconstruct their skeletons. We can examine their teeth. We can sometimes identify their diet. We can estimate how they moved. We can even reconstruct aspects of their brains using the internal spaces preserved inside fossil skulls. But intellig...
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